COST ENGINEERING FOR HIGHER PRODUCTIVITY

Home | About M. L. Puri | The writings | Feedback

COST ENGINEERING FOR HIGHER PRODUCTIVITY

M. L. Puri (October 10, 1957)

In this book, the principles of cost engineering in the railways have been elaborated. Concepts such as human engineering, the functions of cost engineering and the mechanics of cost engineering have been discussed and applied to the railways.

CASE STUDY - RAILWAY WORKSHOPS
1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Railway workshops in India are passing through a crucial phase. On the one hand there are the increasing needs of development and demands for higher wages. On the other hand there is acute financial stringency and the corresponding emphasis on economy. Balancing of these mutually contradicting factors simultaneously can only be made possible by an all-out drive for higher productivity, and organizing this drive on a realistic basis is the crux of our problem.

In private enterprise the motive force for higher productivity comes from the urge for profit under keen competition in the open market. In railway workshops this primary motive force is absent, and something has to be deliberately substituted for it, in order to give a real meaning to the productivity drive. “Cost engineering” is calculated to devise and apply this substitute, in the form of an urge for saving under a kind of internal competition. The remarkable rehabilitation of workshops of German Federal Railways and the high productivity obtaining there today are to no small extent due to the successful application of cost engineering.

2. MEANING OF COST ENGINEERING

2.1 High productivity rests on specialized attention to detail to the point of perfection; and integration of the perfected detail for specific purposes. In the final analysis, this is achieved through successful human engineering: motivating the individuals from the highest level down to the lowest level to accept, learn and practice the modern techniques of higher productivity. Cost engineering is intended to serve as the harness of human engineering. It urges the individual towards constructive effort, guides him in getting the best value for the effort put in and controls him by equitably evaluating the result of this effort.

2.2 The other important function of cost engineering is to create a climate of straightforwardness, confidence and trust in industrial relations. It makes clear to all concerned in concrete terms, what the enterprise stands for, what it expects from the staff and what the staff may expect from the enterprise. Through its emphasis on equitable presentation of facts and clear cut accountability, it obviates the possibility ‘Shadow’ passing for ‘substance’, and thereby it places an effective check on the growth of unhealthy tendencies and practices.

2.3 By reason of the aforesaid attributes, cost engineering can provide the most rational structure for industrial incentives and open important possibilities for decentralization of authority under appropriate budgetary control.

3. MECHANICS OF COST ENGINEERING

3.1 Cost engineering is composite in character. It embodies techniques developed through skillful blending of the latest engineering and cost practices. It is quite different from financial accounting. Financial accounting checks for sanction to incur expenditure, sees to the observance of expenditure procedure and ensures arithmetical accuracy of accounts. It does not probe into details of expenditure incurred in making a product or rendering a service, nor does it indicate the ways and means to reduce such expenditure. Cost engineering steps in to take charge of these latter aspects. Its functions do not overlap those of financial accounting, but supplement the same.

3.2 Cost engineering comprises of three main divisions:

3.21 Design of cost structure

3.22 Cost accounting

3.23 Cost control

Cost structure defines the elements of cost that enter a product / service unit or sub-unit thereof, and the manner in which cost figures have to be collected, processed and made available for control purposes. Cost accounting ensures the correct booking of charges in accordance with the prescribed cost structure, reconciles the cost sub-totals and totals with counterparts in financial accounts, where provided for, and processes the basic cost data into final figures required by cost control division. Cost control implies the active employment of cost figures and derivatives, as submitted by the cost accounting division, with the object of progressively reducing the elemental costs and thereby the overall costs.

3.3 The control over cost elements is exercised by comparing the actual costs with rationally developed standard costs and endeavouring to bring the actual averages to standard levels. This process, accompanied by a progressive reduction of the standard costs through improved methods, results in a continuous reduction of the cost budget, and the savings so effected become available for simultaneously feeding development, reducing the consumer’s burden and rewarding the staff who brought about the savings.

4. COST ENGINEERING APPLIED TO RAILWAY WORKSHOPS

4.1 Railway workshops, both central and district, exist for maintaining the maximum possible number of locomotives and rolling stock in reliable working fettle for the Operating Department. In assessing the productivity of railway workshops the following factors have to be given appropriate weightage

4.11 Service reliability, as reflected by the incidence of failure or partial dislocation of scheduled traffic working.

4.12 Engine and rolling stock availability, as reflected by the number of days locomotives and rolling stock are undergoing repairs in shops, waiting for material from shops, or waiting to be accepted by the shops for repairs.

4.13 All-in cost of repairs and maintenance incurred both in central and district workshops per unit of transport.

The factors 4.11 to 4.13 can be compositely expressed as all-in cost of service per unit of transport, separately for locomotives, coaching stock and goods stock.

4.2 The yardstick given in paragraph 4.1 covers the full circuit of service and would serve the purposes of over all cost control. However, for purposes of detailed cost control it would be necessary to sub-divide the overall task into separate workshop tasks. Similarly, in a workshop, the process of sub-division would be carried up to the limit of individual tasks. Then alone would it become possible to arrive at elemental costs and devote specialized attention to reduce the same.

4.3 From paragraph 4.1 it would be observed that there are three variables in the all-in cost of service, namely, reliability, availability and cost of repairs and maintenance. The losses incurred in dislocation of traffic through less of stock reliability are large and difficult to determine. As such it is advisable to organize maintenance for the highest practicable reliability of stock. In the development phase when power and rolling stock constitute the primary bottleneck, it is also desirable to organize maintenance for the highest possible availability of stock. Accordingly, the standard cost of repair and maintenance which would be employed for purpose of control, should be determined in relation to well defined grades of reliability and availability of stock.

4.4 In order to define the task of a particular workshop, its units, sections within each unit and individual workers within each section, it is essential to define the manner in which repair work has to be done and the standard of quality to which it must conform. These stipulations are made in the form of codes of standard practice and inspection standards; and they will have to be related to the grade of stock reliability / availability, for which the particular workshop is supposed to cater.

4.5 After the sub-division of repair tasks has been made as explained in paragraph 4.4, it would be necessary to apply ‘work study’ to individual jobs in order to standardize the best method of doing the job, fix the material required therefore and also the optimum time that the job should take. Finally, the standard cost of the standardized job will be computed for control purposes.

4.6 The cost control division, working in conjunction with the quality control division, would then embark upon a programme of systematically judging the actual cost down to the level of standard cost. At the same time the ‘work study and methods development’ division would be conducting experiment and research in bringing down standard costs and thereby setting up new targets for the cost control division. This procedure for progressive cost reduction would apply in the same measure to the production of new components and execution of repair jobs.

5. COST STRUCTURE FOR RAILWAY WORKSHOPS

5.1 As stated in section 1, the primary function of cost engineering in railway workshops is to provide effective substitutes for open competition and profit motive that exist in private enterprise. The German Federal Railways have gone a long way in this direction and it would be advisable to profit from their experience. Accordingly, a gist of the cost structure as prevalent in the workshops of that system, and suggestions to make use of the same in our own workshops are outlined in the following paragraphs.

5.2 On German Federal railways, the effort is to make the limits of a cost centre coincide with those of individual executive responsibility. This facilitates effective decentralization of authority and budgetary control. Thus a chargeman may consider his section to be an independent self-contained enterprise and be accountable for his section’s performance on a commercial basis. The Germans appreciate that, without vigorous cost interest on the part of the supervisor and the men under his charge, any rapid reduction of working costs become very difficult, if not actually impossible.

5.3 At the same time the German federal Railways are striving to make policy decisions on the basis of well co-ordinated cost figures. This is particularly significant in important matters such as: considering changes in the pattern of traction; change of design, material or treatment of rolling stock components; assessing profitability or otherwise of setting up new workshops or altering or closing down the existing ones; scrapping of particular types of rolling stock on grounds of uneconomical repairs and maintenance, etc. Accordingly, the design of cost structure is such that the basic cost documents readily lead to precise information bearing on the aforesaid decisions.

5.4 On German Federal Railways components are manufactured on a limited scale to cater for emergency and to keep a check on prices paid for bought-out components. Where necessary, they have also off-loaded repair work to private industry. In the circumstances, they have taken particular care to ensure that their costing is done on strictly commercial lines. The other advantage of such commercial costing is that it permits equitable comparison of the cost of work done in different workshops, with different layouts and provided with different type of equipment. In the present day context these aspects are equally important for Indian Railway workshops.

5.5 Perhaps the most important step in commercializing the cost structure on German federal railways has been the rationalization of the on-cost burdens. They have endeavored to localize the on-cost factors for each cost centre. For example, a section bears the interest and depreciation on the works facilities and machines actually provided therein. Similarly the supply of energy to the section, indirect stores, etc. would be separately accounted for. Thus under the same roof the burden rate for a section equipped with expensive automatic machines would be far higher than that of o a purely fitting section.

5.6 The localization of on-cost burden rates provides a ready means of checking the productivity of individual capital assets. This may point to the need for adjustments in work or changes in the pattern of capital assets. On Indian railways this facility is conspicuous by its absence and it is one of the reasons for the low productivity of our workshops.

5.7 Broadly speaking the basic cost documents on German federal Railway indicate:

5.71 Cost carrier: This is equivalent to our work order number but very much more detailed. It locates the particular engine, coach or wagon for which the work is being done or a particular detailed item of cost that would bear the debit.

5.72 Cost Station: This signifies the cost centre in which the expense is incurred and thereby it brings out individual accountability of the supervisor concerned.

5.73 Cost category: This locates the detailed category of cost in respect of labour, stores, energy calculated cost, etc. and provides the basis for category-wise control, either in a cost station or in relation to a cost carrier.
Documents conforming to the aforesaid basic classification can be designed for our workshops also to permit a progressive change-over to the new system, without causing undue dislocation.

6. PSYCHOLOGICAL DRAWBACKS OF OUR ENIRONMENT

6.1 The Indian Railway workshops are chiefly familiar with financial accounting. Cost accounting has been attempted in certain workshops, but it is still in its infancy and even that lacks a proper commercial bias. There is no tradition of active cost control as such; and the present administrative set-up, will not permit the degree of decentralization of authority, which is necessary for effective cost control.

6.2 As a result, existing working procedures and performance yardsticks are full of anomalies. They are not related to the central theme of all-in one cost and consequently they tend to deal with isolated aspects, so that emphasis keeps on shifting from one item to another. Consequently staff at practically all levels have been, thereby, induced for years to “process facts” to suit isolated statistics. In the circumstances, it is not unlikely that the actual facts presented by a well co-ordinated cost picture, may stand at variance with their current statistical counterparts. In this background the fear of being called upon to explain variations would become a serious barrier in the way of accurate fact finding.

6.3 In view of the foregoing, it is essential to create an atmosphere of confidence and trust so that staff at work levels may be able to co-operate in the compilation of factual data without fear of recrimination or victimization. Similarly at higher levels also, there has to be the mental preparedness to take facts to their logical conclusion. In effect, practical assurance to all concerned would need to be given (with the concurrence of our Accounts and Audit departments) that fact finding and cost accounting and effort on the part of staff to make the venture a success would receive positive appreciation.

7. APPROACH IN INRODUCING COST ENGINEERING

7.1 As has been explained in the previous paragraphs, cost engineering implies a multi-pronged approach incorporating work study, research and development in workshop methods, codification of technical data in the form of practice standards and inspection standards, application of modern production and repair control technique’s and finally, the perfection of cost structure and apparatus for cost accounting and control. All these factors are interdependent and they have to be tackled together in successive stages to permit an organic growth of the machinery for higher productivity. For obvious reasons, therefore, this entire composite set-up should be placed under unified control of the authority made responsible for improving workshop productivity.

7.2 The project for higher productivity would be a pioneering enterprise calling for a lot of experiment and research. Accordingly, it is considered advisable to proceed on a compact scale in the first instance, and extend the scope of techniques perfected at the experiment and research centre, only after the effectiveness of the said techniques has been practically demonstrated on a model basis at one or more selected locations.

7.3 In the light of experience gained on German Federal railways, the aforesaid model approach is expected to yield the fastest results with minimum expenditure and within the limited resources of the staff of the requisite caliber and training that can be made available. The other advantage of this approach is that after actual demonstration, argument and controversy are terminated and all concerned are, thereby, induced to apply themselves to enlarge the success that has already been achieved.

8. CONCLUDING REMARKS

What I have said in the foregoing sections is by no means original or final. The concept of cost engineering is well known and widely practiced in the industrially advanced countries. The desire to make use of cost engineering is strong in our administration also. In this background, I have attempted to put together the impressions that I have been able to gather during my stay abroad and present them as a basis for further examination and discussion. If this article helps to activate interest in cost engineering, it would have served its purpose.

Home | Top



Home \| About M. L. Puri \| The writings \| Feedback

COST ENGINEERING FOR HIGHER PRODUCTIVITY M. L. Puri (October 10, 1957) In this book, the principles of cost engineering in the railways have been elaborated. Concepts such as human engineering, the functions of cost engineering and the mechanics of cost engineering have been discussed and applied to the railways.
CASE STUDY - RAILWAY WORKSHOPS 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Railway workshops in India are passing through a crucial phase. On the one hand there are the increasing needs of development and demands for higher wages. On the other hand there is acute financial stringency and the corresponding emphasis on economy. Balancing of these mutually contradicting factors simultaneously can only be made possible by an all-out drive for higher productivity, and organizing this drive on a realistic basis is the crux of our problem. In private enterprise the motive force for higher productivity comes from the urge for profit under keen competition in the open market. In railway workshops this primary motive force is absent, and something has to be deliberately substituted for it, in order to give a real meaning to the productivity drive. “Cost engineering” is calculated to devise and apply this substitute, in the form of an urge for saving under a kind of internal competition. The remarkable rehabilitation of workshops of German Federal Railways and the high productivity obtaining there today are to no small extent due to the successful application of cost engineering. 2. MEANING OF COST ENGINEERING 2.1 High productivity rests on specialized attention to detail to the point of perfection; and integration of the perfected detail for specific purposes. In the final analysis, this is achieved through successful human engineering: motivating the individuals from the highest level down to the lowest level to accept, learn and practice the modern techniques of higher productivity. Cost engineering is intended to serve as the harness of human engineering. It urges the individual towards constructive effort, guides him in getting the best value for the effort put in and controls him by equitably evaluating the result of this effort. 2.2 The other important function of cost engineering is to create a climate of straightforwardness, confidence and trust in industrial relations. It makes clear to all concerned in concrete terms, what the enterprise stands for, what it expects from the staff and what the staff may expect from the enterprise. Through its emphasis on equitable presentation of facts and clear cut accountability, it obviates the possibility ‘Shadow’ passing for ‘substance’, and thereby it places an effective check on the growth of unhealthy tendencies and practices. 2.3 By reason of the aforesaid attributes, cost engineering can provide the most rational structure for industrial incentives and open important possibilities for decentralization of authority under appropriate budgetary control. 3. MECHANICS OF COST ENGINEERING 3.1 Cost engineering is composite in character. It embodies techniques developed through skillful blending of the latest engineering and cost practices. It is quite different from financial accounting. Financial accounting checks for sanction to incur expenditure, sees to the observance of expenditure procedure and ensures arithmetical accuracy of accounts. It does not probe into details of expenditure incurred in making a product or rendering a service, nor does it indicate the ways and means to reduce such expenditure. Cost engineering steps in to take charge of these latter aspects. Its functions do not overlap those of financial accounting, but supplement the same. 3.2 Cost engineering comprises of three main divisions: 3.21 Design of cost structure 3.22 Cost accounting 3.23 Cost control Cost structure defines the elements of cost that enter a product / service unit or sub-unit thereof, and the manner in which cost figures have to be collected, processed and made available for control purposes. Cost accounting ensures the correct booking of charges in accordance with the prescribed cost structure, reconciles the cost sub-totals and totals with counterparts in financial accounts, where provided for, and processes the basic cost data into final figures required by cost control division. Cost control implies the active employment of cost figures and derivatives, as submitted by the cost accounting division, with the object of progressively reducing the elemental costs and thereby the overall costs. 3.3 The control over cost elements is exercised by comparing the actual costs with rationally developed standard costs and endeavouring to bring the actual averages to standard levels. This process, accompanied by a progressive reduction of the standard costs through improved methods, results in a continuous reduction of the cost budget, and the savings so effected become available for simultaneously feeding development, reducing the consumer’s burden and rewarding the staff who brought about the savings. 4. COST ENGINEERING APPLIED TO RAILWAY WORKSHOPS 4.1 Railway workshops, both central and district, exist for maintaining the maximum possible number of locomotives and rolling stock in reliable working fettle for the Operating Department. In assessing the productivity of railway workshops the following factors have to be given appropriate weightage 4.11 Service reliability, as reflected by the incidence of failure or partial dislocation of scheduled traffic working. 4.12 Engine and rolling stock availability, as reflected by the number of days locomotives and rolling stock are undergoing repairs in shops, waiting for material from shops, or waiting to be accepted by the shops for repairs. 4.13 All-in cost of repairs and maintenance incurred both in central and district workshops per unit of transport. The factors 4.11 to 4.13 can be compositely expressed as all-in cost of service per unit of transport, separately for locomotives, coaching stock and goods stock. 4.2 The yardstick given in paragraph 4.1 covers the full circuit of service and would serve the purposes of over all cost control. However, for purposes of detailed cost control it would be necessary to sub-divide the overall task into separate workshop tasks. Similarly, in a workshop, the process of sub-division would be carried up to the limit of individual tasks. Then alone would it become possible to arrive at elemental costs and devote specialized attention to reduce the same. 4.3 From paragraph 4.1 it would be observed that there are three variables in the all-in cost of service, namely, reliability, availability and cost of repairs and maintenance. The losses incurred in dislocation of traffic through less of stock reliability are large and difficult to determine. As such it is advisable to organize maintenance for the highest practicable reliability of stock. In the development phase when power and rolling stock constitute the primary bottleneck, it is also desirable to organize maintenance for the highest possible availability of stock. Accordingly, the standard cost of repair and maintenance which would be employed for purpose of control, should be determined in relation to well defined grades of reliability and availability of stock. 4.4 In order to define the task of a particular workshop, its units, sections within each unit and individual workers within each section, it is essential to define the manner in which repair work has to be done and the standard of quality to which it must conform. These stipulations are made in the form of codes of standard practice and inspection standards; and they will have to be related to the grade of stock reliability / availability, for which the particular workshop is supposed to cater. 4.5 After the sub-division of repair tasks has been made as explained in paragraph 4.4, it would be necessary to apply ‘work study’ to individual jobs in order to standardize the best method of doing the job, fix the material required therefore and also the optimum time that the job should take. Finally, the standard cost of the standardized job will be computed for control purposes. 4.6 The cost control division, working in conjunction with the quality control division, would then embark upon a programme of systematically judging the actual cost down to the level of standard cost. At the same time the ‘work study and methods development’ division would be conducting experiment and research in bringing down standard costs and thereby setting up new targets for the cost control division. This procedure for progressive cost reduction would apply in the same measure to the production of new components and execution of repair jobs. 5. COST STRUCTURE FOR RAILWAY WORKSHOPS 5.1 As stated in section 1, the primary function of cost engineering in railway workshops is to provide effective substitutes for open competition and profit motive that exist in private enterprise. The German Federal Railways have gone a long way in this direction and it would be advisable to profit from their experience. Accordingly, a gist of the cost structure as prevalent in the workshops of that system, and suggestions to make use of the same in our own workshops are outlined in the following paragraphs. 5.2 On German Federal railways, the effort is to make the limits of a cost centre coincide with those of individual executive responsibility. This facilitates effective decentralization of authority and budgetary control. Thus a chargeman may consider his section to be an independent self-contained enterprise and be accountable for his section’s performance on a commercial basis. The Germans appreciate that, without vigorous cost interest on the part of the supervisor and the men under his charge, any rapid reduction of working costs become very difficult, if not actually impossible. 5.3 At the same time the German federal Railways are striving to make policy decisions on the basis of well co-ordinated cost figures. This is particularly significant in important matters such as: considering changes in the pattern of traction; change of design, material or treatment of rolling stock components; assessing profitability or otherwise of setting up new workshops or altering or closing down the existing ones; scrapping of particular types of rolling stock on grounds of uneconomical repairs and maintenance, etc. Accordingly, the design of cost structure is such that the basic cost documents readily lead to precise information bearing on the aforesaid decisions. 5.4 On German Federal Railways components are manufactured on a limited scale to cater for emergency and to keep a check on prices paid for bought-out components. Where necessary, they have also off-loaded repair work to private industry. In the circumstances, they have taken particular care to ensure that their costing is done on strictly commercial lines. The other advantage of such commercial costing is that it permits equitable comparison of the cost of work done in different workshops, with different layouts and provided with different type of equipment. In the present day context these aspects are equally important for Indian Railway workshops. 5.5 Perhaps the most important step in commercializing the cost structure on German federal railways has been the rationalization of the on-cost burdens. They have endeavored to localize the on-cost factors for each cost centre. For example, a section bears the interest and depreciation on the works facilities and machines actually provided therein. Similarly the supply of energy to the section, indirect stores, etc. would be separately accounted for. Thus under the same roof the burden rate for a section equipped with expensive automatic machines would be far higher than that of o a purely fitting section. 5.6 The localization of on-cost burden rates provides a ready means of checking the productivity of individual capital assets. This may point to the need for adjustments in work or changes in the pattern of capital assets. On Indian railways this facility is conspicuous by its absence and it is one of the reasons for the low productivity of our workshops. 5.7 Broadly speaking the basic cost documents on German federal Railway indicate: 5.71 Cost carrier: This is equivalent to our work order number but very much more detailed. It locates the particular engine, coach or wagon for which the work is being done or a particular detailed item of cost that would bear the debit. 5.72 Cost Station: This signifies the cost centre in which the expense is incurred and thereby it brings out individual accountability of the supervisor concerned. 5.73 Cost category: This locates the detailed category of cost in respect of labour, stores, energy calculated cost, etc. and provides the basis for category-wise control, either in a cost station or in relation to a cost carrier. Documents conforming to the aforesaid basic classification can be designed for our workshops also to permit a progressive change-over to the new system, without causing undue dislocation. 6. PSYCHOLOGICAL DRAWBACKS OF OUR ENIRONMENT 6.1 The Indian Railway workshops are chiefly familiar with financial accounting. Cost accounting has been attempted in certain workshops, but it is still in its infancy and even that lacks a proper commercial bias. There is no tradition of active cost control as such; and the present administrative set-up, will not permit the degree of decentralization of authority, which is necessary for effective cost control. 6.2 As a result, existing working procedures and performance yardsticks are full of anomalies. They are not related to the central theme of all-in one cost and consequently they tend to deal with isolated aspects, so that emphasis keeps on shifting from one item to another. Consequently staff at practically all levels have been, thereby, induced for years to “process facts” to suit isolated statistics. In the circumstances, it is not unlikely that the actual facts presented by a well co-ordinated cost picture, may stand at variance with their current statistical counterparts. In this background the fear of being called upon to explain variations would become a serious barrier in the way of accurate fact finding. 6.3 In view of the foregoing, it is essential to create an atmosphere of confidence and trust so that staff at work levels may be able to co-operate in the compilation of factual data without fear of recrimination or victimization. Similarly at higher levels also, there has to be the mental preparedness to take facts to their logical conclusion. In effect, practical assurance to all concerned would need to be given (with the concurrence of our Accounts and Audit departments) that fact finding and cost accounting and effort on the part of staff to make the venture a success would receive positive appreciation. 7. APPROACH IN INRODUCING COST ENGINEERING 7.1 As has been explained in the previous paragraphs, cost engineering implies a multi-pronged approach incorporating work study, research and development in workshop methods, codification of technical data in the form of practice standards and inspection standards, application of modern production and repair control technique’s and finally, the perfection of cost structure and apparatus for cost accounting and control. All these factors are interdependent and they have to be tackled together in successive stages to permit an organic growth of the machinery for higher productivity. For obvious reasons, therefore, this entire composite set-up should be placed under unified control of the authority made responsible for improving workshop productivity. 7.2 The project for higher productivity would be a pioneering enterprise calling for a lot of experiment and research. Accordingly, it is considered advisable to proceed on a compact scale in the first instance, and extend the scope of techniques perfected at the experiment and research centre, only after the effectiveness of the said techniques has been practically demonstrated on a model basis at one or more selected locations. 7.3 In the light of experience gained on German Federal railways, the aforesaid model approach is expected to yield the fastest results with minimum expenditure and within the limited resources of the staff of the requisite caliber and training that can be made available. The other advantage of this approach is that after actual demonstration, argument and controversy are terminated and all concerned are, thereby, induced to apply themselves to enlarge the success that has already been achieved. 8. CONCLUDING REMARKS What I have said in the foregoing sections is by no means original or final. The concept of cost engineering is well known and widely practiced in the industrially advanced countries. The desire to make use of cost engineering is strong in our administration also. In this background, I have attempted to put together the impressions that I have been able to gather during my stay abroad and present them as a basis for further examination and discussion. If this article helps to activate interest in cost engineering, it would have served its purpose.
Home \| Top



Powered by BRAINyard